Covid-19, Harassment and Social Media: A Study of Gender-Based Violence Facilitated by Technology During the Pandemic

The transition of all individual activities in the home gives rise to two forms of violence against women, such as domestic violence and online sexual violence. Specifically, this article argues that independent quarantine during the COVID-19 pandemic has shifted the orientation of community sexual violence to technology-facilitated sexual abuse. Social media networks become a trajectory of changes in sexual violence that was initially physical into online sexual violence. This research uses a qualitative method with a case study approach to understanding the phenomenon of online sexual violence. The data presented here refer to the experiences of four survivors with different backgrounds and stories. The results show that technology has facilitated digital abuse, which impacts a series of dangerous behaviors experienced in social media. Women, as part of social media users, are very vulnerable to experiencing online sexual violence from personal relationships, boyfriend, friendship, and relatives. Space and time in the real world folded in such a way as to provide opportunities for the reality of virtual networks to become a realm of gender-based violence. At the same time, the neutrality of social media then turns into a means of supporting gender inequality.


INTRODUCTION
The pandemic coronavirus disease  has radically changed the lives of individuals and the structure of society. No one can predict the long-term implications and consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic (Mazza et al. 2020).
Strict steps in managing public health to control an epidemic have carried out throughout the country, such as lockdowns, work/study from home, and social distancing. At the same time, individuals required to stay and carry out all activities in the house throughout the day, according to instructions specified by the government. The ongoing policy of individual quarantine turns out to significantly stimulate social, economic, and psychological consequences.
A recent study began to expose the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gender inequality that underlies cases of violence against women. Some academics also revealed that there was an increase in reports of quarantine violence for women and children (van Gelder et al. 2020;John et al. 2020). The limited space for individuals due to independent quarantine drives the risk of preexisting vulnerabilities, especially in intimate partner violence (Garcia-Moreno et al. 2006). The transition of all activities at home increases the intensity of encounters with private partners. The house turns into a dangerous place for victims of domestic violence because it places women as objects of violence (Mazza et al. 2020).
Women tend to be at risk of being sexually and physically abused by intimate partners or non-partners in their lives; almost one-third of women in the world (Knaul, Bustreo, and Horton 2020). The United Nations Population Fund estimates that social restrictions under the six-month ongoing  pandemic could result in an estimated 31 million additional cases of gender-based violence globally (Mahase 2020). Not much different from Indonesia, evidence of gender-based violence jumped dramatically during the coronavirus outbreak.
According to The Women's Association for Justice and Legal Aid (LBH-APIK), from March to April 2020, there were 97 reported cases. Cases of gender-based violence still receive the most data, including evidence of domestic violence (33 cases), online gender-based violence (30 cases), sexual harassment (8 cases), rape (3 cases), and dating violence (7 cases).
In some cases, online gender-based violence acts show an increasing significance. Even though the percentage of online gender-based violence cases in J a t m i k o : C o v i d -1 9 , H a r a s s m e n t a n d

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Indonesia during the pandemic is relatively low, the number of cases has increased in the last three years. Internet access has changed the pattern of interpersonal relations, which determines the norms in acting and interacting (Zhong, Kebbell, and Webster 2020). Digital technology devices have become a feature of contemporary society, especially among adolescents .
As noted by Websindo (2019), total social media users reach 150 million users with vulnerable ages between 18 and 34 years. Supported by the duration of excessive use of Indonesian social media, for 7 hours 59 minutes (Ramadhan 2020), is one of the triggering factors of online harassment through mobile devices. The progress of the digital world has facilitated gender-based violence in the virtual realm so that it becomes a crucial issue that requires special attention (Barak 2005;Kowalski and Limber 2007;Marwick and Miller 2014;Rodríguez-Darias and Aguilera-Ávila 2018).
Gender-based violence in social media networks has indeed attracted the attention of the public and academics in the past decade (see Ojanen et al. 2014).
Much literature discusses online gender-based violence in several countries. The majority focus on experiences and forms of online sexual abuse (Barak 2005;Beech et al. 2008;Burke et al. 2011;Franklin 2014;Ging and Siapera 2018;Powell 2014, 2018;Kavanagh and Brown 2019;Powell 2010; Rodríguez-Darias and Aguilera-Ávila 2018; Shariff and DeMartini 2015;Vitis and Gilmour 2017) and discourses that based on decision making in public policy (Mena-Rodriguez and Velasco-Martínez 2017). Until now, there is still limited research that explores in-depth online gender-based violence in the Indonesian context, especially in the situation of the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the uniqueness of this study relates to the contextual condition in Indonesia and explores the susceptibility of women to gender-based abuse online. Where women's vulnerability to physical gender-based violence during the quarantine of the COVID-19 pandemic has indeed increased, but online gender-based violence has increased more significantly.
This article seeks to enrich the preexisting literature by focusing on online gender-based violence rife during the pandemic and exploring the experiences of victims of online sexual abuse. Specifically, the authors explore survivors' narratives that openly, with an exclusive agreement, reveal their personal experiences. Based on the focus of the study, this article raises some questions, 1) how to project the experiences of victims of sexual violence online; 2) how technology facilitates online gender-based violence in a pandemic crisis.
Throughout this article, the author departs from many perspectives of victims and simultaneously elaborates with a variety of relevant literature. The findings are expected to provide a general basis for the threats and implications of online gender-based violence against victims so that they can offer reflective solutions to developing more inclusive policies.  Based on this process, four victims were willing to be the subject of the informants in this study. All informants were young women aged 18-23 years spread across three provinces, namely Jakarta, Yogyakarta, and Surabaya. The general criteria for informants refer to women who have experienced online gender-based violence during the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia, to be precise, starting in January 2020. The reason for choosing these informants is to find out and explore cases of gender-based violence online during the COVID-19

METHOD
pandemic. The narrative that is conveying from the perspective of the victim expecting to provide a projection of the research issue so that it can produce knowledge about shifts in sexual harassment or gender-based violence.  concerns about online threats have expanded to include various online sexual harassment. The current globalization increases the use of the internet globally and influences the emergence of online gender-based violence Powell 2015, 2016;Zhong et al. 2020). The participation of women and children in the online space has been marked by concerns about their safety, especially the problem of online harassment and their vulnerability to online sexual predators (Barnes 2006;Jane 2014;Shade 2007;Vitis and Gilmour 2017).
In general, violence against women can be defined as gender-based acts of violence that result in physical, sexual-psychological damage, and suffering against women, including arbitrary deprivation in general or in private life (Cuklanz 2000;Kappler 2012). In contrast, sexual violence focuses more specifically on unwanted sexual behavior (physical or non-physical) directed at others, regardless of the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim.
However, the term online sexual violence cannot be generalized in the real culture of violence because it does not accurately reflect the location of technological mediation in acts of sexual abuse, more widely open than in the past (Gundersen and Zaleski 2020;Zaleski et al. 2016). Therefore, the complexity of the issue of online gender-based violence that occurs in society must see in a culture of technology and more meaningful social discourse.
The utopian vision of digital technology that was once promoted as a new, democratic public space and guaranteeing freedom of expression turned out to experience gender inequality similar to the real world. Social media is changing to strengthen old forms of gender inequality and improve them in new ways so that abuse can multiply Lewis, Rowe, and Wiper 2016;Litchfield et al. 2018). The justification of online sexual harassment is also inseparable from the hegemonic masculinity is institutionalized in virtual public spaces. The patriarchal cultural dimension manifested as a disciplining subject to express gender hierarchies in the social-technological landscape. The idea of hegemonic masculinity then fosters the perception of social media that men will be male when committing gender-based violence as an acceptable natural act. The normality of violence against women can ultimately free men from the mistakes of online rape and other sexually aggressive behavior in the community (Klein 2005;Miller and Marshall 1987). Technological developments that create social media or virtual networks weaken women by positioning them as objects of violence. Adolescent girls who are part of social media users are ultimately vulnerable to the risk of online crime.
As Zhong, Kebbell, and Webster (2020) argue, which states two categories of online crime threats; first, pure cybercrime as a violation aimed at hardware or software. Secondly, cybercrimes supported by technology are legal violations aided by the internet. This type of crime in cyberspace is receiving attention because many women report incidents of online gender-based violence, such as cyberstalking, rape videos, online sex coercion, porn revenge, doxing, and violence facilitated by technology (Henry, Flynn, and Powell 2015;Jane 2018).
This phenomenon is indeed relatively new in some countries, especially in studies in Indonesia, although sexual violence facilitated by technology and online aggression against women has been reported since the early stages of internet growth McCormick and McCormick 1992). However, these practices are essential to reconsider the role of contemporary technology because they change and strengthen gender-based violence. On the other hand, big data capabilities that extend the life of digital content and algorithm in search engines can easily link to the victim's name. Social media, at least, acts as a force multiplier that allows enormous negative impacts on victims, beyond the dangers of real-world sexual violence (Williams 2006;Yar 2005).

b. Narrative Of Online-Based Sexual Violence Victims
This section describes the experience of the victim to obtain a brief description of sexual violence. We expose certain parts in general from the experiences of survivors, for example, the background of life, historical stages, and forms of sexual abuse that occurred them. Besides, we carry out in-depth interpretations to clarify the victim's narrative to project the structure of the experience and how the victim understands cases of online sexual violence. famous professional model, like the Miss Universe Indonesia. Her interest in modeling and photography took seriously, even took the time to explore interests after graduating from high school by joining the film casting event. That expectation is a little pushing her to become a model until now, including changing orientation to become a sexy photo model.
When plunged into the world of modeling, BL has many good and bad experiences while undergoing a profession. For example, he has won several model awards at the regional-national level and has been the best candidate in the photography arena. However, it is not uncommon for BL to experience bad experiences with those around her, both expressions and direct actions that hurt her. As described below; "Appearing in a seductive, hot, sexy style is always synonymous with the harmful, wrong, or bad world, although actually, my kingdom is right, they judge people from the words of others, that's the problem [...] many are disparaging, slandering or bully of various, yes, all look at the outside appearance, this is also because as a model I have to be sued with a sensual style, attract men and development outside now, but that is indeed the responsibility of the job as an adult photo model that is arguably professional, so just let others want to judge me like what, it's up to them, now I'm also focused on improving myself without judging them, and I also do not disturb their lives" (Interview with BL, March 4, 2020) The views of the Indonesian people always place the work of the model as a moral deviation. The community is still confined by religious dogma and cultural values dressed in the archipelago so that it cannot accept sensual poses as in western culture. Raw images that show the shape of the body with minimal dressing is complicated to be considered as usual in Indonesian society, despite the argument that it is an art form. Conversely, this condition backfires for BL when experiencing sexual violence some time ago. She was the party to blame because some people considered her to provoke someone's desire for sexual abuse. In fact, in reality, BL, which has long been a model, has never experienced such incidents of harassment. Only this time, she had suffered bad luck to experience severe trauma in life. "An unfortunate incident happened to me, I was humiliated and sorry about the event, initially as usual without any problems, so there was no suspicion, but when on location, during a sudden briefing, it was awkward with the previous agreement [fashion problem] I tried to protest, but they didn't respond; finally I followed their wishes with positive thoughts [...] I did often wear open clothes, so everyone thought it was natural that she harassed, especially with my work considered different compared to friends of the same age [...] now it was indeed a difficult time to convince everyone if I work well, not guilty of this case, I am here the victim is not a perpetrator, and it is not a matter of dress, but their mentality is damaged to do this" (Interview with BL, March 6, 2020) BL is a survivor of sexual violence committed by unscrupulous photographers. The damned action took place around the end of January in one of the famous hotels in West Jakarta. The abuse began at the first photo session, and it got worse after the photo process was over. The perpetrator carries out arbitrary actions by threatening to damage the popularity victim, so that career as a model is destroyed. In this precarious situation, BL did not stand still; she fought against threats from the perpetrators could escape.
However, the act of sexual assault that he received was still not over. In February 2020, she got a shipment of photos from a colleague who showed pictures of BL hot scenes from different angles, hidden and unfocused. The perpetrator seems to have prepared a hidden camera in certain parts of the room.
Some photos show being in the locker room (bathroom), and the rest are incidents of acts of sexual violence committed by perpetrators on victims.
"I will show a lot of photos later, at most when the photo scene, everything is recorded, some are not focused, but I drop even more when I know that my photos shared to sold on the fake account [perpetrators], so the perpetrators active in the social media account, then the photos that he stole secretly with models were uploaded to attract buyers who saw, who was interested in the pictures of the model, for example, woman A, the buyer had to pay, then given an address to download [...] the photo problem he could not say anything, but if sold online with that pose without my knowledge becoming a big problem, I've reduced the photo offer, besides because the pandemic, I still traumatized [...] now I have also begun asking my followers to report the accounts used and asking the hacker service to delete everything; hopefully, all will end soon" (Interview with BL, March 6, 2020)

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Looking at the problem of BL experience, it can seem that anyone can commit sexual violence. Besides, image-based sexual abuse has the potential in the world of modeling because the photos can be consumed by the public freely, especially on victim social media accounts. According to Bruce (2016), social media builds the freedom of women to present their work and lives, but the online sphere risks the threat of violence against women. In the BL case, a sensual photo was first made by the perpetrator with the victim's professionalism approval as a model but instead led to criminal acts because it was distributed online without the victim's consent (Salter and Crofts 2015). receives after becoming a photo model.  Not only the psychological pressure from the experience of online sexual violence, but JM also said that the agency fooled her. The perpetrators did not pay anything to them because all models must go through the test shoot process. All poses and clothing are unilaterally determined by the actors (many photographers) without accepting the opinion of the model. As a result, the resulting image seems very vulgar because it is forced to take nude photos. The perpetrators, once again, convince all models not to share pictures that have made because it is only a test shoot condition. After the photo session, all the models did not receive the money agreed upon, but they were invited to a club in the South Jakarta area. The perpetrators ignored those who protested. Even JM and other model colleagues offered to sold to masher man; human trafficking occurs, which leads to prostitution. Some friends decide to run away, and some others are forced to accept the invitation of the perpetrator. However, JM did not pay too much attention to the case. He considered that all could be lessons in the future, so be careful.
However, her disappointment culminated when he found out vulgar photos The problem is that many men find their social media accounts, so JM experiences further sexual violence. The pictures are seen by the masher men become the lighters for them to act sexting. The terminology of sexting may be relatively new to some people. Still, it can be interpreted as a practice of visual sexual harassment that involves the experience of sharing photos, videos, and porn

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texts through technological devices (Brown, Keller, and Stern 2009;Crimmins and Seigfried-Spellar 2014;Hasinoff 2012).
Her life was interrupted by the message of social media account that led to harassment, sexual overtones, and rated as a prostitute. The tendency of sexting indeed allows a woman to be humiliated as a prostitute because of a nude picture.
In some instances, online violence through sexting extends to more dangerous forms of sexual abuse, leading to informal meetings and rape ( to look for a man more mature than her to be a partner, later called dating.
Establishing a relationship with a man who has a difference of six years of age does not discourage her when her school friends underestimate her. According to JM's statement, she did not feel that dating for more than a year. The relationship is harmonious, happy, loyal, and interconnected with trust. The use of internet access has developed rapidly and has become a part of daily life as a whole, both for work and leisure activities (Hughes et al. 2012;Reyns, Henson, and Fisher 2011  When the case became more widespread, MP demanded accountability from the perpetrator. However, RE argued that he did not carry out the incident, but the perpetrator's cellphone was lost and considered the inventor who spread the photo.

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Not trusting the ex-boyfriend argument, MP then searched all the luggage of the perpetrators. The victim obtains a mobile phone that the perpetrator uses, then MP destroyed the mobile phone in front of many people. While she did not receive a direct response from the abuser, MP stated that she was a little relieved because the device that stored all of her dirty images could destroy.
Looking at cases of online sexual violence that began to exist in dating relationships, probing victims' stories illustrates the danger of intimate relations to violence. The closeness between the victim and the perpetrator provides an excellent opportunity to repress the victim; physical, visual, and verbal actions.
All acts of personal relations, especially dating, experienced by women, can turn into threats, exploitation, and assault to undermine or eliminate the subject's ability to control partners (Connell 1995;Kelly 1988).
In this case, we see the motive for JM's ex-boyfriend action as porn revenge, which implies the spread of non-consensual pornographic content through digital networks. Support of the sexual harassment subculture on social media was created and managed by a group of men to influence men's perceptions to hurt their ex-boyfriend by portraying image-based sexual violence (Salter and Crofts 2015). However, DeKeseredy and Schwartz (2016) noted that revenge has many perpetrators' motives, makes money, jokes, or for no reason at all, but has the same goal at the expense of profound loss to the victim.

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AC Stories: Online Threats to the Real Body. The survivors' narrative continues with an interview with a young woman who has various life experiences. Her teenage years passed with many life challenges, ranging from family, economic problems, and dating relationships. After graduating from school two years ago, in 2018, economic conditions forced her to work. Both parents cannot fulfill the ideals of continuing education to the undergraduate level.
In the transition to looking for work, air conditioners accepted at a grocery and cake shop as a shop assistant. However, it did not last long, almost two months, because he felt the salary received was not worth the hard work. He then opened an online business while looking for a job again. In 2019, AC finally accepted an offer from an old friend at her school to become a Sales Promotion Girl (later referred to as SPG), a well-known mobile phone brand in Indonesia.
In addition to opening an online shop, AC said that he was very suitable to work as an SPG. While working as an SPG, he felt the job was a fun activity to make money without being tired and dirty. The days of her work passed well until one day, meeting a customer who would later become her lover, the initials HY.
Their meeting was short, just getting acquainted and exchanging telephone numbers, then they proceeded via text messages on the WhatsApp application.
After several months of personal communication, the AC invited to meet and eat at a famous cafe in Yogyakarta. Starting from that meeting, HY then expressed her feelings for AC to have a relationship.
"If traced from behind, all the work I've tried, starting from ordinary work until now I work as an SPG, finally I also started my luck online, looking for something cheap because I didn't have significant capital [...] at that time meeting with friends school in a cafe, he offered a job as an SPG; finally, I started to try it [...] SPG I think is the most delicious job in terms of finance; the same is not too big, but we don't need to spend energy, just talk to get buyers, plus always appearing clean [...] during that work I also met my ex-boyfriend" (Interview with AC, March 19, 2020) The dating period, in the beginning, was beautiful and romantic, said AC.   fear. Online harassment is transforming into a threat and form of sexual violence in the real world. Online sexual harassment will always be the target of mistakes because of the labeling and stigmatization of the community. The body is always assumed to be an object due to the objectification of the results of images scattered online to make victims more likely to become victims of violence again (Titchen et al. 2019).

c. Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence and Dromology in Social Media
Based on the findings in the field, we see that the Indonesian context, which is currently in the COVID-19 pandemic, has changed the habits of individuals in society, which initially prioritized physical presence into digital activity.
Correspondingly, the COVID-19 outbreak is called on the population to carry out electronic practices that lead to increasing the usage of the Internet internet, including for jobs, education, and efforts to alleviate boredom during an individual quarantine. Men have a higher chance of surfing on social media.
Under these conditions, women's vulnerability to gender-based violence will go hand in hand with social media (see Arafa and Senosy 2017). Online virtual space is transformed into a dangerous risk space where the presence of women must be excluded and restricted if they want to stay safe.
Another concern related to the continued existence of the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia, which is not finished, further worsens online gender-based violence. The opinion Aolain (2011) argues that women and girls become increasingly vulnerable to abuse when the social order is destroyed, along with extraordinary circumstances that disrupt the rhythm of daily life during and postdisaster (Fisher 2010). This confirms that cases of gender-based violence, especially domestic violence and online sexual violence, will continue to increase significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia. The socio-economic impact of quarantine at the same time triggered by the high intensity of the use of social media makes it possible for the closest people or online sexual predators to target women to be their target (Henry and Powell 2014).
In interactions used for various types of online sexual harassment. For example, consuming pornographic content, sharing photos/videos that refer to revenge online, advertising members in a porn group, and being involved with collecting other pornographic content. As a social network that is easily accessible to the public, Twitter provides a vast and potential social networking space in spreading pornographic content, both from the results of sexting for revenge or deliberately selling pornographic works without consensus.
The change in the form of sexual violence online seems to be in line with Paul Virilio's thoughts, which describe the technology and basis for the formation of human experience. He focused on the science of speed, which referred to as dromology. According to Virilio (1986), the concept of dromology is defined as the accumulation of knowledge relating to speed experiences (social, political, and economic acceleration) and, in particular, implications for compressed human life.
The transmission of communication provided by modern technology in society causes loss of direct presence and aspects of experience that realized directly. In other words, the development of telecommunications technology can negate real space, crisis space-representation, and world distortion (Virilio 2008).
In this case, social media as an online sexual violence facility increases the prevalence by involving and replacing other spaces to obtain more useful navigation. The reality of Indonesian society, which began to be technocratic, the high number of users of social media, correlated with the reduction of gestures to digital reality. Online sexual violence is finally possible when faced with duplication of fact, that virtual reality (pictures/videos) and real reality (individual activities entering social media) double relationships to become a reality. Space and time entirely collapse because it is realized in digital space. Digital visualization then places individuals in the position of inertia that radically changes our relationship with the real world (Virilio 2000a).
Ultimately, the dimension of sexual violence transformed into an earthly absence that eliminates space and time. The culture of contemporary technocratic societies continuously immersed in digital space, born in internet connectivity that provides intangible simulations. The most apparent form of threat of gender-based violence in the future is online-based violence because it is exclusively taken over by teletopical persistence, the negation of time and space (Virilio 1997). All human activities, especially sexual abuse, tend to be transferred into ). An ideological shift towards independent responsibility can represent that social media, as part of virtual reality, simplifies optical density from real-world representations that are very risky. Humans try to enter virtual space by simplifying challenges through the contraction of time and distance. They prioritize the speed of technology transmission over social, economic, and political impacts (Virilio 2000b).

CONCLUSION
This article has explored harassment by looking at two perspectives (online gender-based violence and dromology) to provide a better understanding of the phenomenon of technology-facilitated violence since the spread of the coronavirus pandemic in Indonesia. We state that technological advances, the high number of social media users, and the increasing intensity of social media during the COVID-19 epidemic have further exacerbated the phenomenon of online genderbased violence. The results of this study reveal that many women are victims of offline sexual violence and continue to be victims of online violence. Cyberspace which has high-speed acceleration has been shrouded by hegemonic masculinity by playing in the authority of technology; become a vehicle for creating the online sexual violence revolution as today. The summarization of distance and time through technology then becomes a strategic reality that has consequences for victims of online sexual violence because it can provide repeated attacks on social media networks; the victim becomes a pole of inertia. However, online harassment is a complex combination of technical elements and socio-cultural